Astaxanthin: Difference between revisions

'''Astaxanthin''' is a keto-carotenoid within a group of chemical compounds known as terpenes.<ref name="Margalith">{{cite journal|pmid=10341427|year=1999|last1=Margalith|first1=P. Z.|title=Production of ketocarotenoids by microalgae|journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology|volume=51|issue=4|pages=431–8|doi=10.1007/s002530051413|s2cid=123858}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/jo050101l|pmid=15823009|title=Efficient Syntheses of the Keto-carotenoids Canthaxanthin, Astaxanthin, and Astacene|journal=The Journal of Organic Chemistry|volume=70|issue=8|pages=3328–31|year=2005|last1=Choi|first1=Seyoung|last2=Koo|first2=Sangho}}</ref> Astaxanthin is a metabolite of zeaxanthin and canthaxanthin, containing both hydroxyl and ketone functional groups. It is a lipid-soluble pigment with red coloring properties, which result from the extended chain of conjugated (alternating double and single) double bonds at the center of the compound. The presence of the hydroxyl functional groups and the hydrophobic hydrocarbons render the molecule amphiphilic.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ahirwar|first1=Ankesh|title=Light modulates transcriptomic dynamics upregulating astaxanthin accumulation in Haematococcus: A review|journal=Bioresource Technology|date=3 August 2021|volume=340|page=125707|doi=10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125707|pmid=34371336|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960852421010488|access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref>

Astaxanthin is produced naturally in the freshwater microalgae ''Haematococcus pluvialis'' and the yeast fungus ''Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous'' (also known as ''Phaffia rhodozyma'').<ref>{{cite web|title=''Phaffia rhodozyma'' M.W. Mill., Yoney. & Soneda - Names Record|url=http://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=319694|website=www.speciesfungorum.org|publisher=Species Fungorum|access-date=9 September 2022}}</ref> When the algae are stressed by lack of nutrients, increased salinity, or excessive sunshine, they create astaxanthin. Animals who feed on the algae, such as salmon, red trout, red sea bream, flamingos, and crustaceans (shrimp, krill, crab, lobster, and crayfish), subsequently reflect the red-orange astaxanthin pigmentation.

The US [[Food and Drug Administration (FDA)|Food and Drug Administration]] has approved astaxanthin as a food color additive for specific uses in animal and fish foods.<ref name="FDA">{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/ForIndustry/ColorAdditives/ColorAdditiveInventories/ucm115641.htm|title=Summary of Color Additives for Use in United States in Foods, Drugs, Cosmetics, and Medical Devices|website=[[Food and Drug Administration]]|date=March 4, 2022}} See Note 1.</ref> Astaxanthin from algae, synthetic and bacterial sources is generally recognized as safe in the United States.<ref>[http://www.nutraingredients-usa.com/Regulation/Astaxanthin-wins-full-GRAS-status Astaxanthin wins full GRAS status]. Nutraingredients-usa.com. Retrieved on April 25, 2013.</ref>