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= Table 2 =
= Table 2 =
{| class="wikitable sortable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Biomarker Key
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Assessment methods
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Researchers
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Year
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Country
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Sample size
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Age range
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Population
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Aging biomarkers (Candidate → Final)
|-
|-
|SBP
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |MLR
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Hollingsworth et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1965
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Japan
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |169 Males
268 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |10–70+ years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |General population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |17 → 9
|-
|-
|DBP
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |MLR
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Webster and Logie
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1976
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Australia
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1,080 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |21–83 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |General population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |37 → 7
|-
|-
|PP
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |MLR
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Takeda et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1982
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Japan
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |200 Males
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |20–69 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |10 → 5
|-
|-
|MAP
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |MLR
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Voitenko and Tokar
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1983
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Soviet Union
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |88 Males
109 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |19–73 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |General population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |122 → 11
|-
|-
|Pulse
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |MLR
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Dubina et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1984
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Soviet Union
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |100 Males
63 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |60–100 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |21 → 3
|-
|-
|PWV
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |MLR /PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Nakamura et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1988
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Japan
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |462 Males
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |30–80 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |30 → 11
|-
|-
|HR
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Nakamura et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1989
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Japan
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |69 Males
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Average 42.6 ± 9.4
years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |18 → 7
|-
|-
|IMT
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Nakamura et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1990
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Japan
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |65 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |20–64 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |18 → 9
|-
|-
|MinIMT
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Nakamura et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1996
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Japan
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |221 Males
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |20–85 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |17 → 8
|-
|-
|EDV
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Nakamura and
Miyao
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2003
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Japan
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |86 Males
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |31–77 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
(including some early functional decline or disease)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |25 → 9
|-
|-
|MVEAP
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Ueno et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2003
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Japan
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |981 Females
(cross-sectional study)
110 Females
(longitudinal study)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |28–80 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |31 → 5
|-
|-
|MVEL_MVES_MVEA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Nakamura and
Miyao
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2007
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Japan
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |86 Males
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |31–77 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
(including some early functional decline or disease)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |29 → 5
|-
|-
|AI
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |MLR
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Bae et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2008
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Korea
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1,302 Males
2,273 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |40–88 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |General population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |80 → 25
|-
|-
|NTproBNP
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Nakamura and Miyao
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2008
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Japan
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |86 Males
93 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |31–77 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
(including some early functional decline or disease)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |29 → 5
|-
|-
|CTnI
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Park et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2009
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Korea
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1,588 Males
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |30–77 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
(including some early functional decline or disease)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |11
|-
|-
|CPK
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Bai et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2010
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |China
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |392 Males
460 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |30–98 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
(including some early functional decline or disease)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |108 → 8
|-
|-
|Homocysteine
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |MLR/PCA/KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Cho et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2010
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Korea
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |200 Males
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |30–70 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |General population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |16 → 11/3 principal components
|-
|-
|FVC
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Jee et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2012
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Korea
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1,604 Males
760 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |30–85 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |14 → 8
|-
|-
|FEV1
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |MLR
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Bae et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2013
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Korea
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |66,168 Males
55,021 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |20–89 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |General population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |34
|-
|-
|VC
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |MLR/PCA/KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Levine
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2013
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |United States
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |9,389 People
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |30–75 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |NHANES (1988–1994)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |21 → 10
|-
|-
|MMFR
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Zhang et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2014
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |China
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |505 People
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |35–91 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |114 → 7
|-
|-
|VO2Max
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Zhang et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2014
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |China
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |69 Males
70 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |35–91 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |105 → 6
|-
|-
|CR
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Belsky et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2015
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |New Zealand
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |954 People
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |38 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |The Dunedin Study
(1972–1973)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |10
|-
|-
|MMSE
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Mitnitski et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2016
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Canada
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1,013 People
(61.6% Females)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Average 80.8 ± 7.2
years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Canadian Study of Health and Aging (1991–1992)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |22 → 10
|-
|-
|DST
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |DNN
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Putin et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2016
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Russia
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |62,419 People
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |0–100 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Anonymous population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |41
|-
|-
|NM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |MLR/PCA/KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Jee and Park
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2017
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Korea
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |912 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |30–80 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |31 → 8
|-
|-
|AM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Kang et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2017
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Korea
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |165,395 Males
98,433 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Average 44.2 ± 10.6 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
(including some early functional decline or disease)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |5
|-
|-
|TM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Zhang et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2017
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |China
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |581 Males
792 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |19–93 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |74 → 5
|-
|-
|STM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Brown et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2018
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |United States
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1,356 Males
1,420 Females
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |70–79 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |The Health ABC Study
(2013.11)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |8
|-
|-
|Concentration
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |DNN
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Mamoshina et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2018
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Korea, Canada, Eastern Europe
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |142,379 People
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |≥20 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Anonymous population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |19
|-
|-
|IMD
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Murabito et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2018
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |United States
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2,532–3,417 People
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Average 45/62/67 years (Exam 2/7/8)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |The Framingham Heart Study
Exam 2 (1979–1983)
Exam 7 (1998–2001)
Exam 8 (2005–2008)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |clinical BA:6
inflammatory BA:9
|-
|-
|TMT
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |CNN
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Pyrkov et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2018
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |United States
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |7,454 People
(51% Females)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |6–84 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |NHANES (2003–2006)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1-Week Activity Data
|-
|-
|Glucose
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Hastings et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2019
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |United States
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |6,731 People
(52% Males)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |20–84 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |NHANES (1999–2002)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |12
|-
|-
|HBA1C
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |MLR/PCA/KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Jee
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2019
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Korea
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |940 Males
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |30–80 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |32 → 6
|-
|-
|CPeptide
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |DNN
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Mamoshina et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2019
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Canada
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |149,000 People
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Average 55 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Anonymous population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |18/20/23(three DNN models)
|-
|-
|Insulin
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |ConvLSTM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Rahman and Adjeroh
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2019
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |United States
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |7,104 People
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |18–84 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |NHANES (2003–2006)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1-Week Activity Data
|-
|-
|TG
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Gaydosh et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2020
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |China Taiwan
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |951 People
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Average 67.7 ± 8.3 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Social Environment and Biomarkers of Aging Study (2000)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |11
|-
|-
|TC
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Zuyun Liu et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2020
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |China
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |8,119 People
(53.5% Females)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |20–79 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |China Nutrition and Health Survey (2009)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |27 → 12
|-
|-
|HDL
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Parker et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2020
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |United States
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |1,374 People
(35% Males)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |71–102 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Duke Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly (1991–1992)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |10
|-
|-
|LDL
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |MLR/PCA/KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Zhong et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2020
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Singapore
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2,844 People
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |55–94 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Singapore Longitudinal Aging Studies (2008.03–2013.11)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |68 → 8/10(Males/Females)
|-
|-
|ApoA1B
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |PCA/KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Chan et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2021
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |UK
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |141,254 People
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |40–70 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Healthy population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |110 → 51 principal components
|-
|-
|TSH
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |DNN
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Gialluisi et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2021
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Italy
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |23,858 People
(51.7% Females)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Average 55.9 ± 12.0 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |The Moli-Sani Study
(2005.03–2010.04)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |36
|-
|-
|Testosterone
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Kuo et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2021
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |UK
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |294,293 People
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Average 56.7 ± 8.0 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |UK Biobank (2006–2010)
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |7
|-
|-
|VitaminD
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |CNN
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Raghu et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2021
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |United States
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |116,035 People
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |40–100 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |General population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Chest X-ray dataset
|-
|-
|Calcium
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |MLR/KDM
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Bahour et al.
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2022
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |United States
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2,459 People
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |20–80 years
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Diabetes, pre-diabetes, and NHANES (2017–2018) population
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |8
|-
|-
|Potassium
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Deep learning
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Nusinovici et al.
|Sodium
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |2022
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Korea
|InorganicPhosphorus
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |40,480 People
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |≥65 years
|Urea
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Korean Health Screening study
|-
| colspan="1" rowspan="1" |retinal photos
|Creatinine
|-
|eGFR
|-
|UricAcid
|-
|CystatinC
|-
|CreatinineClearance
|-
|UrineSG
|-
|UrinepH
|-
|ALT
|-
|AST
|-
|ALP
|-
|TotalProtein
|-
|Albumin
|-
|AGRatio
|-
|TotalBilirubin
|-
|DirectBilirubin
|-
|Amylase
|-
|LDH
|-
|Alpha2Globulin
|-
|GGT
|-
|RBC
|-
|RDW
|-
|Hematocrit
|-
|MCV
|-
|MCH
|-
|MCHC
|-
|Hemoglobin
|-
|WBC
|-
|Granulocytes
|-
|Neutrophils
|-
|BasophilsEosinophils
|-
|Lymphocytes
|-
|Monocytes
|-
|Platelet
|-
|MPV
|-
|PDW
|-
|ESR
|-
|DdimerFibrinogen
|-
|Ferritin
|-
|Transferrin
|-
|VisualAcc
|-
|VisualReactTime
|-
|VisualAcuity
|-
|Hearing
|-
|Vibrotactile
|-
|RetinalPhotos
|-
|CRP
|-
|CMVOptDensity
|-
|IL6
|-
|Pselectin
|-
|GripStrength
|-
|VerticalJump
|-
|TUGTest
|-
|ChairRiseTime
|-
|PhysicalActivityWeek
|-
|WaistHipRatio
|-
|WaistHeightRatio
|-
|BMI
|-
|Weight
|-
|Height
|-
|BodyFat
|-
|LeanBodyMass
|-
|SoftLeanMass
|-
|TelomereLength
|}
|}
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